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The word ‘stoic’ today suggests someone who feels nothing — but the ancient Stoics wanted the exact opposite. This lecture from Academy of Ideas corrects the modern image and traces Stoicism from its Greek founder to its Roman masters: Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. At its heart is a single, powerful line: some things are up to us, and some are not. By training ourselves to care only about what we control, the Stoics taught, we can keep our inner peace even when the outer world falls apart. It is ancient wisdom that still grounds much of modern therapy.
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Approximately 2,000 years ago, a Roman philosopher named Seneca said the following about the state of philosophy in his day.
important question of how to live. Seneca was a member of the school of philosophy
known as Stoicism, and while in our day the word Stoic is most likely to bring
to mind an unemotional individual, unaffected by pleasure or pain, the
modern definition does not accurately represent the Stoic school of philosophy.
The ancient Stoic was not one who lived life devoid of all emotion, but instead
was one who attempted to rid himself of negative emotion and cultivate an inner
strength and joy that radiated from his being no matter what external circumstances he faced.
As Seneca explained, the Stoic must necessarily be attended by constant cheerfulness and a
joy that is deep and issues from deep within, since he finds delight in his own resources,
and desires no joys greater than his inner joys.
It is because the philosophy of Stoicism sets as its ideal the attainment of tranquility
in the midst of struggles and joy in the midst of hardship that it has seen a resurgence
of popularity in the modern day.
In fact, the principles laid down by the ancient Stoic philosophers form the foundation of
cognitive behavioral therapy, a psychotherapeutic approach which is increasingly viewed as one
of the most effective means to overcome a variety of mental illnesses.
The roots of Stoicism stretch back to the ancient philosopher Zeno of Sidium, Sidium
being the town in Cyprus where he was born.
Zeno lived from 334 to 262 BC, and sometime around 300 BC he moved to Athens to practice philosophy.
Zeno founded a school of philosophy in Athens, and because he gave his lectures on a painted porch, his students were called Stoics.
Zeno, along with the other Stoic philosophers to follow him, was extremely influenced by Socrates.
Socrates’ influence was so great that the Roman Stoic Epictetus is quoted as saying,
saying, and you, although you are not yet a Socrates, should live as someone who at least
wants to be a Socrates. While Zeno was the founder of Stoicism, it was one of his followers,
Chrysippus, who would become the most influential of the Greek Stoics. Although none of his works
remain today, Chrysippus is thought to have authored approximately 700 works, and is widely
considered the greatest ancient philosopher behind Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. While
Stoicism originated in ancient Greece, it reached its peak of influence several centuries later
in the Roman Empire. Most of our knowledge of Stoicism comes from the writings and ideas
of these Roman Stoics. Important Roman Stoics include Seneca, Musinius Rufus, Epictetus
, and Marcus Aurelius, the emperor of Rome from 161 to 169 AD.
The Stoics divided philosophy into three parts, logic, physics, and ethics. However, their
Their main concern was with ethics, and engaged in the study of nature mainly to solidify
their ethical views.
The Stoics thought that happiness was acquired by attaining virtue, or excellence of character,
which in turn was acquired by living according to nature.
Since virtue was attained by living according to nature, the Stoics deemed it necessary
to understand the nature of the cosmos in order to determine how to live.
Looking out at the world, the Stoics observed that nature exhibits a complex, harmonious
structure.
reasoned that this structure must be the product of a single divine principle which pervades
the entire universe.
They called this divine principle many names, including Universal Reason, Mind, God, and
Zeus.
Despite the myriad of names, it is crucial to understand that they envisioned this principle
not as supernatural or as a transcendent being, but as embodied in the fabric of nature, and
thus in a sense nature itself.
The Stoics believed the entire cosmos to be one massive organism, of which each of us
is but a part.
All that you see, wrote Seneca, that which comprises both God and man, is one.
We are parts of one great body.
Within this one great body that is the universe, the Stoics claimed that all external events
are wholly determined by antecedent events, and therefore that whatever happens is predetermined
by the iron hammer of fate.
happens to you, wrote Marcus Aurelius, has been waiting to happen since the beginning
of time. The twining strands of fate wove both of them together, your own existence
and the things that happen to you. Despite claiming that everything is predetermined,
the Stoics did not advocate an attitude of withdrawn resignation towards life. Instead,
they put forth a theory which today is called soft determinism, an idea which leaves room
for freedom in a deterministic universe. The Stoics’ soft determinism arose from their
conception of the nature of human beings. While we have a physical and mortal body like all
creatures on this earth, the Stoics thought that we are unique in that our mind is literally an
offshoot of the universal reason or god which pervades and structures all things. As the slave
philosopher Epictetus noted, most people do not acknowledge this god within, which is really their
true self, and instead identify themselves with their creaturely body. Seeing that our birth
involves the blending of these two things, the body on the one hand, that we share with
animals, and on the other hand, rationality and intelligence, that we share with the gods.
Most of us incline to this former relationship, wretched and dead though it is, while only
a few to the one that is divine and blessed. By cultivating this god within, the stoics
believed we could achieve an inner freedom untouched by the iron hammer of fate. This
inner freedom would not enable one to change what has already been predetermined, but instead
would allow one to respond and react to these events freely and consciously, and thereby
control the effect that such events had on one’s happiness. Seneca, for example, thought
that we should accept and even love whatever fate brings our way.
”What is a good man’s role?” wrote Seneca, ”to offer himself to fate. It is a great
consolation that we are swept along together with the universe.”
To better explain their ideas concerning fate, Epictetus used the analogy of a game of dice
which had been put forth by Plato hundreds of years before Epictetus lived.
We must accept what happens as we would accept the fall of dice, and then arrange our affairs in whatever way reason best determines.
The contrast between the events of our life predetermined by fate and the inner fortress of freedom
we have the potential to cultivate, delimits the key tenet of Stoicism.
Some things are up to us and some things are not up to us.
According to the Stoics, most things are not up to us, or in other words, are beyond our control.
control. The actions and opinions of other people, our health, our reputation,
and the amount of wealth we amass are examples of things not up to us. These
things can be influenced one way or another through our actions, but
ultimately they are things outside of our complete control. The things which
are up to us, or within our complete control, are the things which emanate
from our mind. For example, our opinions, judgments, beliefs, desires, and goals.
According to the Stoics, misery and suffering result from the fact that
that people make their happiness dependent on things which are ultimately
outside of their control, and in doing so, enslave themselves.
Epictetus, who was a born slave and became a free man later in his life,
is quoted as saying,
“…a man’s master is he who is able to confer or remove whatever that man seeks or shuns.
Whoever then would be free, let him wish nothing,
let him decline nothing which depends on others, else he must
necessarily be a slave.” To give up our self-imposed slavery,
we must regard as indifferent all those things which do not lie within our
control
and make our happiness dependent only on those things which are up to us.
For example, since our desires are up to us,
we can train ourselves to cease desiring the things which are not in our control.
The vast majority of people do not do this, but instead slavishly chase after
external goods such as wealth, power, or sexual gratification,
believing that it is only by attaining these things that they will feel good.
Epictetus contrasted this slavish individual
with the individual who has attained inner freedom.
wife. Do you think these are little things? How much would these very people, the wealthy,
the powerful, the ones who live with beautiful women, pay for the ability to look down on
wealth and power, and those very women whom they adore and get?
The problem with making our happiness dependent on things outside of our control is that when
such things are lacking we will be miserable, and alternatively, when we do have them, we
will often be so anxious about losing them we won’t be able to enjoy them.
It is crucial to note here that the Stoics did not advocate that one shun all those things
which are not up to us.
Rather, things such as health, wealth, a good reputation, good food and drink, love and
sexual pleasures, all these and more were things which the Stoic enjoyed if they came
his way.
Yet, unlike practically everyone else, the Stoic was not attached to them, and his happiness
was not dependent on them.
This meant not only that in their absence the Stoics still lived a life filled with
joy and tranquility, but that when external goods did come his way, he was able to enjoy
them without being anxious about losing them.
As Seneca stated,
It is in no man’s power to have whatever he wants, but he has it in his power not to
wish for what he hasn’t got, and cheerfully make the most of the things that do come his
way.
But what about the times in our life when we face not just the absence of certain external
goods, but grave misfortunes and adversity?
What advice did the Stoics have for these times?
To understand how a Stoic would approach such a situation, we must heed the words of Epictetus.
It is not things that trouble us, but our judgments about things.
The loss of a loved one, the crumbling of a career, sickness, or the utter destruction
of one’s reputation are not inherently bad, but are only bad because we judge them to
be so.
If we would but look at our misfortunes with a new set of eyes, and assume a different
attitude towards them, the Stoics maintain that we could benefit from our troubles, and
see them as mountains to climb instead of pits to fall into.
It is difficult circumstances that show real men, claimed Epictetus.
Constant misfortune, wrote Seneca, brings this one blessing.
Those whom it always assails, it eventually fortifies.
Or perhaps most powerfully, Seneca stated, excellence withers without an adversary.
The time for us to see how great it is, how much its force,
is when it displays its power through endurance. I assure you,
good men should do the same. They should not be afraid to face hardships and
difficulties
or complain of fate. Whatever happens, good men should take it in good part
and turn it to a good end. It is not what you endure that matters,
but how you endure it. The principles which guided the Stoics’ life will
likely seem extreme to many
and exceedingly difficult to follow. In fact, Epictetus claimed that the Stoic
way of life is so difficult
that never has there been a true Stoic. By the gods, he said,
I would love to see a stoic, but you cannot show me one fully formed.
The stoics maintained that if there ever existed an individual who perfectly embodied the stoic
principles, such an individual would be what they called a stoic sage, and would be more
godlike than human.
The stoic sage Chrysippus is said to have claimed would be perfectly serene and happy
even in the bull of Phalaris, the bull of Phalaris being a bronze replica of a bull
which the tyrant Phalaris would place his enemies into before lighting a fire beneath
its belly, roasting the victim alive. Seneca described the godlike nature of the Stoic
sage with these words,
And if you ever come across a man who is never alarmed by dangers, never affected by cravings,
happy in adversity, calm in the midst of storm, viewing mankind from a higher level and the
gods from their own, is it not likely that a feeling will find its way into you of veneration
for him? Is it not likely that you will say to yourself, Here is a thing which is too
great, too sublime for anyone to regard it as being in the same sort of category as that
puny body it inhabits, into that body there has descended a divine power.”
While the ancient Stoics knew that few, if any, would ever become sages, they did believe
that great benefits could be had for the individuals who strove after such an ideal.
The Stoics were extremely cognizant of the fact that the vast majority of people are
incapable of dealing with the hardships of life without becoming worn down and eventually
defeated.
The Stoics thought of philosophy as a tool we can use to help us sculpt and shape our character into an impenetrable fortress,
one able to withstand struggles and adversity with calmness and strength.
Epictetus in fact characterized philosophy as concerned with the art of life, that is,
with how to make it through the battle that is life, not only intact but having lived a good life.
For as the great emperor of Rome Marcus Aurelius put it,
The art of living is more like wrestling than dancing.
Source: Academy of Ideas